Yeast

In the Middle Ages, pain pétri (kneaded bread) got its name because women kneaded and formed the bread at home and then baked the loaves in public ovens, a tradition that remained in Morocco until recent years. Even in the late Middle Ages, when bread could be easily purchased from a baker, Jewish women still made the pain pétri as one of the three mitzvoth that a woman performs for the Sabbath. (The other two are to light candles, and to go to the ritual bath, or mikveh.) The Sabbath tables of even Reform and Liberal Jews have two loaves of bread. These represent the double portion of manna that was gathered on the eve of the Sabbath during the forty years of wandering in the wilderness. Except on the eve of the Sabbath, manna had to be gathered daily, for it spoiled overnight. Madame Hamier made her recipe using cake yeast, something not readily available in the United States these days, so I have substituted dry yeast here.

Kalonymus Ben Kalonymus, a Provençal Jewish philosopher, writer, and translator who wrote in the early part of the fourteenth century, satirized the Jewish community of Arles for dreaming, while at synagogue, about the honey, milk, and flour that they would use to make their ladder breads for Shavuot. Although fougasse was and is usually made with oil, at this Jewish holiday celebrating the giving of the Torah and the abundance of dairy products at the time of the barley harvest, the Jews used milk. The fougasse was baked in the shape of a so- called ladder, with holes, and candied cherries or candied orange peel hung or embedded in the dough. Ladders to heaven are a common metaphor for holiday breads in Judaism. The fougasse, kneaded and shaped by hand at home for the Sabbath and holidays, was then carried on a board to the baker, sometimes Jewish and sometimes Christian, depending on the size of the Jewish community in the town.

This is a specialty of Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt. Sweet ataïf (pancakes) are extremely popular stuffed with nuts and soaked with syrup). These savory ones are less common.

A recipe is given in al-Baghdadi’s medieval cookery manual for these crisp little golden balls soaked in scented syrup or honey, bearing the same name, luqmat el qadi, which means “judge’s mouthfuls.” In Egypt they are known as zalabia, in Lebanon they are known as aweimat. The Greeks have a similar sweet called loukoumades. They are street food. Vendors deep-fry them and throw them into a syrup. During festivals they are sometimes colored bright yellow or red for joy and happiness and sold sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon. For parties they are served piled in a pyramid on a platter, held together by a sticky syrup.

In North Africa, sfendj, also called khfaf, are sold by street vendors. People buy them for breakfast. They can be plain or with raisins. Eat them hot as soon as they are done or reheat in the oven. Serve them with honey or dusted with sugar.

Ataïf are dearly loved all over the Arab world. They were favorites of the Caliph Mustakfi of Baghdad in the tenth century. At a lavish banquet in his honor, a poem written by a certain Mahmud ibn Husain al-Kushâjim extolling the merits of ataïf was recited. Basically pancakes dipped in syrup, they are sprinkled with pistachios and eaten with thick cream or, more grandly, they are stuffed with chopped nuts or with cheese. The stuffed ones are my favorites. They are eaten during festivals, especially during the month of Ramadan, when they are sold in the street. They are the sweets of happy occasions such as weddings. Once upon a time, in Egypt, on the day of betrothal, a string of camels or donkeys brought the bride’s furniture and belongings to the house of the bridegroom, while he gave a farewell “stag” banquet complete with dancers and singers. The young bride had a ritual bath and was then conducted to her new home by a colorful procession headed by buffoons and musicians, dancers, jugglers, sword swallowers, and fire eaters. These were followed by lavishly decorated donkey carts. A first cart carried a coffeemaker with pots and cups and a fire, making coffee for well-wishers. A second carried makers of ma’amoul and trays covered with these pastries to distribute. A third carried pancake makers, handing out ataïf to passersby. When the bride arrived at the house, she sat down with her guests to a feast where hundreds of these delicacies were consumed. Families nowadays usually buy their ataïf ready-made from bakeries, and then stuff them and soak them in syrup. But the batter is easy enough to make at home. Several people I know always make it themselves. None have scales, nor do they measure quantities. They just look at the batter and add more water or more flour if they think it requires it. An aunt who lives in California and who has never ceased to cook in the Oriental manner uses a well-known pancake mix, which is very acceptable.

Three recipes for “ka’ak” are given in the medieval Kitab al Wusla il al Habib (see appendix). Here is my mother’s. It makes rather a large quantity, but they keep for a long time in a box. My mother kept a biscuit tin permanently full of them. She said she used margarine rather than butter because it did not become rancid if you kept the kahk a long time.

There are many feast days in the Greek Orthodox calendar which are marked in the kitchen. Easter is the most important. The date is movable, fixed on the first Sunday following the full moon of the spring equinox, but generally falling within the first half of April. Houses are whitewashed and decorated with lilac, clothes are made, and new shoes are bought. There is much activity in the kitchen, for the feast also marks the breaking of forty days’ Lenten fast and a complete fast on Good Friday. Solemn candlelit processions are followed by national rejoicing to celebrate the Resurrection. Paschal Lambs are roasted on spits in gardens and open spaces, and the innards are used for mayeritsa soup, which is finished with the favorite egg-and-lemon mixture. Hard-boiled eggs are dyed red, a color supposed to have protective powers, and polished with olive oil, and a sweet braided bread is adorned with them.

There are many North African semolina breads. I love this crusty, crumbly one with a rich aniseed flavor.

In Algeria they sometimes bake it on a griddle or skillet, but that didn’t work well for me.

The flatbread with a pouch which we know as pita is khubz, which means “bread,” in the Arab world. In Egypt, eish baladi (eish means “life” and baladi means “local”) is made with a mix of whole-wheat and unbleached white flour, while the one made with white flour is called eish shami (shami means “Syrian”). The bread is round and 8 inches in diameter.

This is a special bread/cake that Danes like to make for the holiday season. It’s a quick version of flaky Danish pastry.

This simple, wholesome bread is made with stone-ground rye flour. Baked in the convection oven, the crust is chewy and flavorful. It is not as dense a bread as others in this category, therefore it bakes at a slightly higher temperature. This is the bread we baked in the oven of the woodstove when I was growing up on the farm in northern Minnesota. The wood oven creates heat that circulates much like that of a convection oven. I have finally been able to bake bread that closely resembles my childhood favorite!

This bread is close-textured, grainy, and full of hearty flavor. It slices most easily the day after it is baked. Serve it very thinly sliced with a flavorful cheese such as gjetost, Jarlsberg, or Danish Havarti.

This is an easy refrigerator dough method, which requires no kneading. Once refrigerated for 2 to 24 hours, it is easy to shape and bake a number of different ways. These breads are rich with special ingredients, which will all brown quickly while baking. So, the baking temperature must be lower than that of conventional ovens while the baking time remains about the same. You’ll be delighted with the moist crumb; because the crust is formed early in the baking, it locks in moisture.

Cinnamon perfumes the air as this loaf bakes. This not-too-sweet wheat bread is a perfect match for aged sharp Cheddar. This dense loaf bakes beautifully in the convection oven at a lower temperature than you’d expect.

This light-textured loaf is showy in a buffet. This is a batter bread, easy to stir up, no kneading involved. It bakes quickly in the convection oven.

Perfect for sandwiches, toast in the morning, or the evening bread basket, this bread is a basic in a home bread baker’s repertoire. I prefer to bake it in free-form rounds, but it is just as good baked in a loaf pan.

Here’s another favorite country bread that includes honey and eggs. The baking temperature is reduced in the convection oven although the baking time remains the same.

These breadsticks bake to golden crispness in the convection oven, and are a fun project to do with kids.